"We are the Earth, through the plants and animals that nourish us.
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Cause and Effect
Ecosystems
The Earth's Resources
A Changing Relationship
The Global Response
Civil Society and the Post-Rio Process
V iewing life in its systemic entirety--as one complete, interdependent and interactive system--runs contrary to the way many people see their world. Most of us view the world as composed of separate parts. We deal with life's objects and events without acknowledging the processes that connect them. Sometimes we compartmentalize the world for the purpose of organizing it, but end up actually separating the sections in our minds. Many of us don't realize that each of us is part of many systems which, in turn, are part of larger systems.
One of these systems, the largest and most complex, is the ecological system in which we live, and of which we are a part-the biosphere. The biosphere is the thin covering of the planet that contains and sustains living organisms. Portions of the biosphere may be present in the hydrosphere (water), atmosphere (air) or lithosphere (rock, and the crust of the earth). The biosphere consists of, among many other things, plants, trees, insects, fish, micro-organisms and people.
Understanding the interconnectedness of all life in the other
forms of life can live sustainably in relative security. We cannot
feel any kind of serious obligation for something to which we
feel no connection. If we do not see how we as individuals interact
with and affect the ecological community of which we are part,
we will not feel any sense of responsibility toward it. Without
this sense of connection, we are likely to engage in irresponsible
activities that could be harmful to the Earth.
As all aspects of the one reality are interconnected, so too are all actions. The law of cause and effect states that every action causes a reaction, which, in turn, is itself an action that causes other reactions, and so on. Everything we do sets off a chain of events that extends far beyond our control. Within this process, negatives seem to perpetuate negatives, while positive actions seem to set off positive chains of reaction.
Thus, pollution, a negative, fills the air with substances that
harm people's lungs, rises into the atmosphere to cause global
warming, falls back to Earth as acid rain to kill forests and
sterilize lakes, and even contributes to the deterioration of
the planet's protective ozone layer. Each of these reactions in
itself is responsible for another chain of reactions. On the other
hand, the simple act of recycling can save trees from being cut
down unnecessarily. Trees absorb carbon from the atmosphere, and
this helps offset the effects of global warming. There are also
many "unseen" consequences to actions. For example,
someone may see you on your way to the recycling centre with a
box of newspapers and be inspired to become more environmentally
conscious. Sometimes the synergistic aspects of action, when one
action is accompanied by another somewhere else, can create effects
much greater than if the first action had occurred on its own.
This is the power of community. The possibilities are boundless,
limited only by your imagination.
An ecosystem is a system of plants, animals and other organisms, together with the nonliving components of their environment. Our environment is made up of everything that surrounds us as earth, air, water or fire. Everything we experience is a part of our environment, just as much as we are a part of it. There is no separation between organisms and their environment. Molecules that are part of the non-animal environment may be incorporated into animal organisms, and eventually find their way back into the environment as a fertilizing substance. This is what happens when we eat food. A part of it goes to help build and maintain our bodies, a portion goes to energy which affects the environment through our actions and a third portion is eliminated from the body. When we die, our bodies themselves return to the environment from which they were borrowed. In such ways, organisms and their environment are interconnected and interdependent aspects of one world.
The ecosystem is also a community of life in the larger sense. Within the global ecosystem exists a group of smaller ecosystems, each of which consists of a group of living organisms and their local physical environment. The living and non-living elements of anecosystem are connected through flows of energy activated by the cycling of chemical elements.
Forests
Forests are an example of a complex system of ecosystems. Forests consist of air, soil, water, nutrients and particular species of animals, birds, insects, micro-organisms, trees and other plant life. If some of the trees are cut down, each of the other elements will be affected. Animals and birds may lose their habitats, soil may erode, nutrients may be displaced, and the flow of waterways may change.
The concept of an ecosystem is important because it conveys one
of the key insights gained from the science of ecology-everything
is related with and interconnected to everything else. Since no
part of the global ecosystem exists independently of another,
none can be affected without affecting the others. Ecosystems
change over time, but this change is natural and occurs in
certain recognizable, repeatable patterns. The composition of
species of trees in forests, for example, will change in a relatively
predictable way over time.
Many of the ecological problems we are experiencing now have stemmed from an illogical exploitation of the Earth, its resources and its ecosystems. When we think of ourselves as separate from nature, we see nature merely as a source of resources to tap for our own benefit. We take these resources from the air, the ground, the water and even the organisms of the biosphere.
Resources are either 'renewable' or ' non-renewable.' Many resources of the non-renewable type (such as petroleum and minerals) are harvested from beneath the Earth's crust, and so the Earth's ecosystems have evolved with only limited exposure to them. As a result, many non-renewable resources are 'foreign' to the biosphere and can be harmful to organisms, disrupting the ecosystems of the biosphere. Many environmental issues are caused by the retrieval, processing, transport, use and disposal of non-renewable resources. For example, land use associated with mining disturbs and often displaces human communities and many species of wildlife. The smelting of metals and the refining of fuels often releases pollutants into the surrounding air, soil and water.
These and similar activities degrade the habitat and can create serious health risks for both humans and wildlife. Similar negative environmental impacts may occur because of fuel leaks and spills. The burning of fossil fuels, a non-renewable resource, contributes to global warming, smog and acid rain. As well, products made from non-renewable resources, if not reused or recycled, can end up in landfills, adding to the problem of accumulated solid waste.
All these concerns translate into costs for the human community which eventually impact on everyone in some way or another. These costs can come in the form of lower harvests of timber or fish, high health care costs for treating respiratory ailments, and the cost of rehabilitating degraded areas, such as cleaning up oil spills
Unlike renewable resources, the non-renewable resources from the Earth's crust cannot, even in principle, be used sustainably. They are finite; there is a certain quantity or volume of their existence which will not increase with time. Therefore, they do not replace themselves when used (at least not within timeframes relevant to us). At any rate of consumption, these resources will eventually be entirely depleted.
Many different environmental problems also arise from the use of renewable resources, especially if they are exploited to the point of extinction, at which time they consequently become non-renewable. If a forest expands at a rate of five per cent a year, and if a community logs five per cent of the trees a year, the timber industry will in fact be sustainable and durable. In effect, the forest itself is the community's capital, and the five per cent it harvests can be considered the interest, or the profit from that capital. However, if that community cuts down 10, 20, 30 per cent or more of its forest each year, then it would be using up its capital and the activity would not be sustainable-the forest would eventually be completely depleted.
As will be presented in the chapter on energy resources, much of our use of non-renewable resources is for the generation of energy for various purposes associated with industrialization and maintaining comfortable standards of living. However, many renewable forms of energy, such as solar, wind and geothermal power are increasingly being used to provide energy requirements effectively, efficiently and most importantly-sustainably.
It is doubtful whether a community will be able to make a radical
shift from non-renewable to renewable resources. The best-case
scenario will probably be a combination of the two, adapted to
each community's unique situation. In the search for sustainability,
the emphasis should be placed on the wise use of resources. When
using non-renewable resources, extreme care and caution should
be exercised to ensure that the environment is not compromised
through pollution, waste or overexploitation. Whenever possible,
creative and experimental approaches should be taken to finding
useful, appropriate and cost-effective renewable alternatives.
In all cases, when using renewable or non-renewable resources,
wise energy use and conservation should be exercised to ensure
that energy is not wasted needlessly.
Human beings are
just one of many species that form the ecosystem. Like all our
planetary "roommates," we have always interacted with
our environment and, in the process, shaped it to some extent.
Unlike other species, however, our role in these processes has
changed dramatically over time. We humans are unique in
many ways, especially in the extent to which we are able to affect
our ecosystems-for better or worse. Since ancient times, the use
of fire has altered flora and fauna, farmers have cut forests
and domesticated certain species of animals and early civilizations
have transformed deserts through irrigation.
Our environmental impact has grown in scale, become more rapid and changed in character. Whereas we once affected only small regions, today we are transforming the Earth itself on a global scale unprecedented in history. Changes which once took decades or centuries are now taking place within a few years. While we once affected the Earth in relatively insignificant ways, we are now changing the fundamental elements of the planet's life-support systems.
There are a number of reasons why human civilization has had such a powerful effect on the ecosystem. Rapid population growth, combined with the development of fossil fuel-based industrialized societies, has dramatically accelerated environmental impacts.
The results of this change in the relationship between ourselves
and our environment have not all been bad, however. An increase
in food production and advances in the field of medicine have
resulted in a world population that is, overall, healthier and
better fed than in previous generations. On the other hand, the
unintended consequences of many of our activities, especially
in the last 200 years, have resulted in serious damage to the
environment.
We will never be able to manage the Earth's complex ecosystem, and should not even try. Managing our own activities, however, is both possible and necessary. As a species, we can prosper without damaging our environment if we learn how to manage our relationship with the ecosystems of which we are part. The key, again, is sustainability. If we are to ensure a healthy Earth where future generations can prosper, we will have to discover ways to achieve and maintain a comfortable standard of living for all of humanity that does not take more from the environment than can be regenerated.
This concept was put at the centre stage of the global arena in 1972 when 113 governments convened in Stockholm, Sweden for the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. This was the first time that representatives of world governments had come together to consider the implications of a deepening environmental crisis. At the end of the Stockholm Conference, a consensus was reached on a document that established the basis for a new era of international cooperation. The Declaration and Action Plan comprised the world's first global agenda for the environment, with 109 recommendations for national and international action and more than 150 separate proposals. They provided the foundation for the development of international environmental law during the 1970s and 1980s and also led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme as the global instrument for carrying out the consensus outlined in the agreements.
After Stockholm, more than 100 governments set up environmental ministries and agencies, which in turn enacted environmental regulations. The Stockholm Conference also gave birth to the World Commission on Environment and Development, known as the Brundtland Commission after its chairperson, Gro Harlem Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway. It was this commission's report, Our Common Future, that called a global conference on environment and development. The UN General Assembly responded with a resolution that set the foundation for the June 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth Summit.
At this second conference, held on the 20th anniversary of Stockholm,
184 governments convened at the highest political level to address
the concerns of sustainability, and the relationship between the
environment and economic development. Following three years of
preparatory meetings and the two weeks of the Summit itself, governments
produced a prescription for planetary survival in the form of
an 800-page document titled "Agenda 21," so called for
its projection that all of its recommendations should be met by
the beginning of the 21st Century. The Summit also produced two
legally-binding conventions on biodiversity and climate change,
a set of forest principles which may form the basis for a forestry
convention, and the Rio Declaration.
Civil Society and the Post-Rio Process
The more than 100,000 community environmental organizations that were formed after Stockholm were given a significant boost in Rio, which saw an unprecedented level of participation in government affairs from the NGO community. Following Rio, Agenda 21 called on all governments to participate fully with community organizations in the search for sustainable solutions to the planet's environment and development crises. In the years since, a new era of partnership has formed between civil society and government, facilitating the implementation of Agenda 21.
Today, local communities are involved in much of the action needed
to ensure a global shift to sustainable living. In rich and poor
countries alike, there is a movement of community-based organizations
that are either acting on their own, combining forces with each
other or joining with governments to ensure a sustainable and
healthy planet. Around the world citizen groups are taking action
to ensure that the activities of their communities do not jeopardize
the well-being of the planet and future generations.
References
50 Simple Things You Can Do to Save the Earth The Earth
Works Group, The Earth Works Press, Berkeley, California, 1989
- A Primer on Environmental Citizenship, Environment Canada,
1993 - Beyond the Earth Summit, Lerner, Steve, Common Knowledge
Press, 1992 - EARTH Audit, the United Nations Environment
Programme, Nairobi, 1992 - Filofax Guide to Green Living,
Elkington, John & Hailes, Julia, Filofax Ltd., 1990 - Our
Common Future, The World Commission on Environment and Development,
Oxford University Press, 1987 - Saving Our Planet: Challenges
and Hopes, the United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi,
1992 - World Resources, 1994-95: A Guide to the Global Environment,
a report by the World Resources Institute in collaboration with
UNEP and the United Nations Development Programme, Oxford University
Press, 1994.
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