"When the animals come to us,
asking for our help,
will we know what they are saying?
When the plants speak to us
in their delicate language,
will we be able to answer them?
When the planet herself
sings to us in our dreams,
will we be able to wake ourselves, and act?"
--Gary Lawless
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Medicinal and Industrial Uses of Biodiversity
Biodependence
Seeking Solutions
Taking Community Action
A Few Cases in Point
Saving Rhinos in Zimbabwe
The diversity of biology on Earth is a complex tapestry of activity interacting in a symbiotic interdependency that is at once beautiful, wondrous and mysterious. It is said that there are more species of life on Earth than stars in the visible universe. Conservative estimates put the number at up to 100 million. Of these, only about 1.7 million plants, animals and microorganisms have so far been discovered and given names. We are but one of these species.
The greatest diversity of biological life, or "biodiversity" as it is commonly referred to, is in developing countries. This is because developed countries have destroyed many natural habitats, and because tropical countries, most of which are not industrialized, are more species-rich. Tropical forests are known to contain roughly half of the biodiversity of the entire planet. In one 15-hectare section of Borneo rain forest, for example, approximately 700 species of trees have been identified-the equivalent of the total number of tree species in North America.
Most of the Earth is covered by water, where many forms of life live. The deep sea floor has only been partially studied and is now proving to be extremely rich in biodiversity, containing as many as an estimated ten million species, most of which are undescribed. In the freshwater lakes of South America, an estimated 40 per cent of all freshwater fishes have not yet been classified.
Such diversity took millions of years to reach its present, rich and incredibly complex and balanced state. It is now, in our lifetime, threatened with massive devastation, because of human activity. Similar to other global ecological problems, species extinction is proceeding rapidly. Unlike many other environmental problems, however, it is completely irreversible. Extinction is forever.
The loss of biodiversity is directly related to every problem discussed in this book. From overpopulation to deforestation, our activity is threatening the existence of the other species with which we share this Earth. The predominant causes for the loss of biodiversity and the degradation of biological resources include large-scale clearing and burning of forests, destruction of coral reefs, destructive fishing practices, overharvesting of plants and animals, the illegal trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora, indiscriminate use of pesticides, draining and filling of wetlands, air pollution, and the conversion of wildlands to agricultural and urban uses.
Many of these causes are themselves symptoms of much deeper problems. In many cases, the root causes for the loss of biodiversity are found in basic economic, demographic and political trends. These root causes include consumption and consequent market demands for commodities such as tropical hardwoods, wildlife, fibre and agricultural products. Population growth is another key factor. The growing human population, even without proportional economic growth, places increasing demands on natural resources and ecosystem processes that are already impoverished and stressed. Settlement policies, such as those in Brazil, promote the movement of the growing unemployed labor forces to frontier regions.
Global debt also creates an economic environment that is not conducive
to the preservation of biodiversity. The debt burden often forces
governments in many developing countries to encourage the production
of cash crops that can earn foreign exchange. Energy policies
also encourage inefficiency in many countries of the world, and
in so doing add to the burden of air pollutants and the risk of
substantial global climate change.
Medicinal and Industrial Uses of Biodiversity
More than 60 per cent of the world's people depend directly on plants for their medicines. The Chinese, for example, use more than 5,000 of the estimated 30,000 identified domestic species of plants for medicinal purposes. In the West, the great majority of medicines owe their existence to research on the natural products that organisms produce. More than 40 per cent of all prescriptions written in the United States contain one or more drugs that originate from wild species (fungi, bacteria, plants and animals).
Wild plant and animal species also have high commercial value other than for medicine. They are of great and increasing importance to industry as sources of tannins, resins, gums, oils, dyes and other commercially useful compounds. The potential for new industrial products from currently unknown or poorly known plant and animal species is significant. Such products may even include hydrocarbons that could replace petroleum as a source of energy. As an example of this, a tree that grows only in northern Brazil produces 20 litres of sap per tree every six months. This sap can be used directly as a fuel in diesel engines. Brazil also produces methane from corn, which it then sells at service stations for use in cars. Producing and using methane saves the country millions of dollars in foreign currency every year that it would otherwise have to spend on importing oil.
Since time immemorial, humanity has used genetic biodiversity in the development of varieties of domesticated plants and animals for use in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and aquaculture. Farmers are also able to take advantage of genetic biodiversity by planting numerous varieties of crops as a hedge against total crop failure. In one example, Andean farmers plant several varieties of potatoes and as a result can count on a successful harvest almost regardless of what the weather is like.
Though the economic benefits of biodiversity are obvious, to date
there has been little systematic screening of wild plant species
for products that can be used by modern society. In the future,
hitherto unknown plant compounds may become valuable as new technologies
and inventions emerge. What we don't know today can hurt us tomorrow.
The unlabeled products of our global warehouse may some day offer
food and medicine to distant generations.
The importance of biological diversity is usually presented from a strictly utilitarian standpoint-that is, what is in it for us. However, the ethical rationale for preserving the biological diversity of the planet may be even more fundamental. Speaking to the Interparliamentary Conference on the Global Environment, Walter Reid of the World Resources Institute remarked that when we speak of the need to "set aside" wilderness areas or provide "stewardship" for federal lands, we portray nature as though it will continue to exist only by the grace of our permission. "Although we increasingly view the survival of other life on earth to be something quite separate from our own existence, we should acknowledge that this dichotomous view which separates humanity from all other life is neither shared by all cultures, nor has a long history even in western thought," he said.
According to Reid, humanity is far more than a steward of nature-we
are dependent upon the natural world. "This concept of 'biodependence'
is far from a guiding principle of action in the modern world,
but it is nonetheless a basic truth," he said. "Thus,
a fundamental rationale for the conservation of biological diversity
is that biodiversity is inseparable from humanity. From the standpoint
of our relationship to other species on earth, and from the standpoint
of our relationship to future human generations, we have a moral-as
well as utilitarian-responsibility to maintain the planet's richness
of species and genetic diversity."
When governments approved the World Charter for Nature at the United Nations in 1982, they agreed that all species and habitats should be safeguarded to the extent that it is technically, economically and politically feasible. Ten years later, as one of the five pillars of the historic Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the world agreed to legislate action to combat the destruction of biological diversity. Winning overwhelming approval, the governments in Rio signed the Convention on Biological Diversity, and then took the document home to ratify it in their respective legislatures.
The Convention, among other things, requires that countries adopt regulations to conserve their biological resources. It establishes the legal responsibility of governments for the environmental impact in other countries of activities by their private corporations and encourages the transfer of technology to developing countries. It also sets forth the regulation of biotechnology firms, and ensures access to and ownership of genetic material. Most importantly for developing countries, the Convention mandates compensating developing countries for the extraction of their genetic materials.
Since government policies often contribute to the depletion of
biological resources, policy changes are a necessary first step
toward ensuring the conservation of biodiversity. Domestic government
policies that deal directly with land resource management, or
that influence resource use indirectly through land tenure, rural
development, family planning and subsidies for food, pesticides
or energy, can have significant impacts. However, as we have seen
with other problems described in this book, it is not enough for
governments to act alone. They need the support of communities.
Quick action is needed to halt the loss of the planet's biodiversity. Such action must address many of the root political, social and economic causes. The response in developing countries is particularly constrained by pressing social and economic issues and by the burden of international debt. Many actions that can be taken to stem the loss of biodiversity do, however, provide short-term economic benefits, such as maintaining natural forests so that wild species can be harvested for food, medicines and industrial products.
The complex threats to biological diversity call for a wide range
of responses across a large number of private and public sectors.
The ultimate manifestation of these responses will depend, in
large part, on the particular circumstance of each area affected.
Though individual community action plans will vary depending on
each circumstance, following are a few ideas to get your community
organization started in this important endeavour:
Artemesin is the only drug that is effective against all of the strains of the plasmodium organisms that cause malaria, which afflicts 250 million people a year. Its chemical structure is totally different from quinine and the other chemicals used against the disease over the past two centuries. Millions of lives have been saved because of the discovery of this drug by Chinese herbalists who extracted it from the natural wormwood, artemisia annua.
Taxol, the only drug that shows promise against breast cancer and ovarian cancer, was initially found in the western yew by a United States Government programme randomly screening plants for anti-cancer properties. Its molecule is structurally unique and it is doubtful it would have been invented if it had not been discovered in nature.
Michellamine B, a novel compound from the African vine ancistrocladus
korupensis, demonstrates a high range of anti-HIV activity. It
does not work in the same way as AZT and other anti-HIV drugs
and, when its method of action is understood, may well assist
in the discovery of other drugs that will be effective against
AIDS.
In most parts of Africa, lions are busy looking for other animals they can sink their teeth into. In Zimbabwe, however, the Lions are working to save wildlife.
Providing safety from poachers is the purpose of the ongoing environmental project undertaken by the Lions Club of Mutare, Zimbabwe. The endangered black rhinoceros, a species native to Zimbabwe, is a frequent target of poachers. Saving the black rhino is important for the local economy. "Tourism is a vital industry in our country," said Lion Len Burrows, public relations officer for the club, "and our animals are the main attraction."
To raise funds for the purchase of antipoaching equipment,
the small club organized a benefit ball and auction. With the
money that was left over, the Zimbabwe Lions reached out further
to help other aspects of the environment. Another project involved
establishing an environmental awards programme for local schools.
References
Convention on Biological Diversity, United Nations, June,
1992 - "Why it matters," Raven, Peter, Our Planet,
UNEP, 1994 - Dowdeswell, Elizabeth, Statement at the opening of
the First Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention
on Biological Diversity, Nassau, the Bahamas, 28 November 1994
- Caring for the Earth, a Strategy for Sustainable Living,
IUCN, UNEP, WWF; Switzerland, 1991 - Global Biodiversity, Status
of the Earth's Living Resources, Groombridge, Brian, Chapman
& Hall 1992 - Global Biodiversity Strategy, Guidelines
for Action to Save, Study and Use Earth's Biotic Wealth Sustainably
and Equitably, World Resources Institute / IUCN / UNEP 1992
- World Resources, 1994-95: a Guide to the Global Environment,
a report by the World Resources Institute with UNEP and the United
Nations Development Programme, Oxford University Press, 1994.